Sleeping giant: enormous fungus overcomes immune system, hides for years inside body, and then unleashes havoc

Rhiannon Pursall

Recent research, by scientists in Madrid and New York, has found an astonishingly clever ‘weapon’ adopted by a deadly fungus - it morphs into a gigantic version, up to 900 times as big as ‘standard’ fungus cells. This renders the sufferer’s immune defences totally inadequate, as they are simply not designed to cope with germs of such proportions.

A key aim when studying disease is learning how a germ manages to escape immune defences of its victim. Humans have incredibly complex and fine-tuned immune systems – so why are we still defeated by some bugs? The reason is that deadly pathogens have evolved to be even smarter than our comprehensive immunity.

The meningitis-causing fungus, Cryptococcus neoformans is a catastrophic problem in countries plagued with AIDS, as patients suffer lowered immunity and succumb relatively easily to disease. The fungus resides in soil and its tiny cells hitch a ride on the air, and are then inhaled by people. The infection is uniformly fatal if it goes untreated (which it often does in poorer societies).

The researchers infected mice with fungus and measured fungal cell size three weeks later. Mice are often used in the laboratory to investigate human disease, because many elements of the immune system are shared across mammals. Fungus grown inside a mouse experienced a real-life infection scenario as it had to encounter retaliation from the animal. The dimensions of these fungal cells were compared to those grown artificially in the lab. The fungus that had to fight against the animals underwent the transformation to gigantism, whereas that grown outside of the mice did not. The scientists concluded that morphing into a giant was a strategy for the fungus to be more effective in tackling the mouse.

An important immune method used by many living creatures is that cells ‘eat up’ invading germs, thereby preventing illness. Some mouse cells were discovered stuck to the colossal fungal cells, indicating they had attempted to eat them but simply couldn’t manage it. An advantage to escaping the victim’s immune system in this way is that the fungus can live for long periods of time inside them, waiting until their natural defences become aged or faulty (as occurs when a person develops AIDS). Although the mammoth cells have this advantage, they are too big to spread rapidly throughout the body and reach the brain to cause meningitis. An important feature enabling them to achieve their devastating ultimate goal is that a giant parent cell can wait for opportune moment (such as AIDS acquisition) and then produce many normal-sized offspring that can proliferate through the victim’s weakened body.

A fungus that alters its morphology to increase disease-causing ferocity is not a new discovery: many are capable of shape-shifting. The researchers suggest that swelling to gigantic proportions may occur in other fungi too. Therefore a valuable line of study could be to develop ways of identifying huge cells in patients that may be missed by traditional tests, so any sleeping giants can be nipped in the bud.

This article is based on the journal article O. Zaragoza et al., PloS Pathogens, June 2010

Now Wash Your Hands

Now you can wash WITH bacteria! 

Cleaner Science an Etsy store (like eBay but entirely for individual shops hand-made goods) selling Petri dish soaps inspired by bacterial physiology: the growth medium, colony morphology, growth patterns, and color changes on any particular medium are taken into account for each bacterial species represented in the full range of soaps.  Cleaner Science is owned by enterprising Pharmacy student from Houston, Texas who also offers glow-in-the-dark Dapi-esque and GFP-esque soaps and even offers a ‘design your own’ facility. Each soap is made from natural ingredients and definitely does not offer an authentic fragrance! Apple, Sweet Pea, Coconut, E. coli! Find them on Facebook

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Study Scientifique

And for my first trick… let me bring your attention to Study Scientifique, a post I did for the Craft Candy blog last year. The Art-Science Adventures blog will catalogue the crafty side of science  - be it oversized stuffed microbes, DNA-banded bangles or crochet crystal structures. Check back here for featured DIY projects and tutorials, downloadable freebies, new and noteworthy articles, and excellent one-of-a-kind gift ideas for Scientists.

Optogenetics in 1000 words or less

Before the start of our department’s postgraduate research conference, I gave a 20 minute presentation on the methods of systems neuroscience. The idea was to try and provide a more general idea of what was involved in experimental neuroscience than could be squeezed into the beginning of the talk about my research. At the end of the presentation, I was asked which technique was my favourite. I’ve been trained in in vivo electrophysiology so that has become my weapon of choice; however, since first learning about optogenetics, I’ve fallen in love with the most sci-fi of neuroscience methods.

So, having missed the opportunity to wax lyrical about it then and inspired by Neuroskeptic’s fMRI in 1000 words, here is…

Optogenetics in 1000 words or less

Continue reading

Balls to the World Cup!

 

Kathryn Swindells


Taking place in South Africa, the football world cup is the big sporting event of 2010, so not just any football will suffice. This year’s tournament will be played with the ‘Jabulani’, a football that was developed by researchers at the University of Loughborough along with the sports company Adidas. Their aim was to create a ball which was perfectly round, accurate in flight and easy to handle in all conditions. 

Instead of hand-stitching pieces of leather together, the new ball is made out of eight thermally bonded 3-D panels. This removes any imperfections caused by the stitching and means that the ‘Jabulani’ is perfectly round and more accurate in flight. 

Dr. Andy Harland, of the Sports Science Institute at Loughborough, “said “When compared to a 32 panelled stitched ball for example, you don’t get the differences in stiffness and differences in response that are a function of the material and the stitching arrangement around the ball.””

The ball is also not completely smooth. It has a so-called Grip’’n’’Groove profile which circles the ball to optimise the aerodynamics. “

Dr. Martin Passmore of Loughborough University said “This is to make sure that the ball is much more symmetrical in flight and so it flies in a much more controlled way”.” 

The handling has also been improved by the introduction of “goose bumps” onto the surface which should enable it to be playable in all weather conditions. 

To test the properties of the ball, researchers at Loughborough utilised a robot which enabled them to mimic a human foot kicking the ball. This is capable of reproducing the same shots over and over again, allowing the scientists to study the flight of the ball using advanced motion capture cameras. The system is even capable of a variety of kicks and, in effect, is able to ‘‘bend it like Beckham’’ over and over again.

However, the big test will come in the next few weeks as teams’ battle it out to become world champions. There has been some controversy with a number of players saying the ball is difficult to control but the manufacturers insist that this is to do with the altitude rather than the design. 

It would seem that as is the case with many new things, the ‘Jabulani’ will take some getting used to; maybe the team that is quickest to master it will end up victorious. 

More information can be found at http://www.lboro.ac.uk/service/publicity/news-releases/2009/169_adidas-jabulani.html. 

 

Plastic Fantastic – plastic antibodies protect against bee venom in mice

By Joey Shepherd

In the first study of its kind to show results in living animals, a group headed by Kenneth Shea of Stanford University have developed plastic antibodies that can capture and clear a bee venom peptide, melittin, from the bloodstream of living mice.

The team created the melittin antibodies using a process known as ‘molecular imprinting’ – essentially creating moulds made of non-toxic synthetic organic nanoparticles (NPs) by making the NPs form around molecules of melittin. The melittin was then dissolved away, leaving protein-sized polymer nanoparticles with an imprint of the venom peptide. The NPs were then able to capture the melittin peptides since they were an exact fit, much as naturally occurring antibodies capture their targets.

When the researchers injected the miniscule plastic antibodies into the mice 20 seconds after injecting the bee venom, it resulted in the survival of 60% of the treated mice. In comparison, none of the untreated mice survived injection of the toxin. The group used fluorescence imaging of the live mice to track fluorescently-labelled NPs and found that they accumulated in the liver for disposal after capturing the poisonous peptide from the bloodstream.

Although the plastic antibodies won’t be able to function exactly like naturally occurring antibodies, as they have no means of communicating with other cells of the immune system, they could provide new anti-toxin therapies.

Original paper: Hoshino et al., J.Am.Chem.Soc 132::6644 (2010).

Milk + Sugar + Nitrogen = A World Record

 

Sabreen Ali

 

A new Guinness World Record has been set with the creation of 1 litre of ice cream in a whopping 10.34 seconds, smashing the previously held record of 18.78 seconds. Andrew Ross, a PhD student from the University of Sheffield’s Chemistry Department, in conjunction with Our Cow Molly, performed the feat at The Sheffield Food Festival on June 6th. He whipped up a batch of ice-cream using full-fat milk, sugar, vanilla flavouring and the secret ingredient – liquid nitrogen, at a temperature of -198 °Celsius.

Usually, ice cream is made at a temperature of -20 °C, which freezes the water inside the cream to form large ice crystals. Repeated stirring will break up these crystals and result in smooth ice-cream. Liquid nitrogen helps to speed up the process, and to improve end results.

“Liquid nitrogen, at -198 °C, will freeze the water really fast forming smaller ice crystals, and in theory, smoother ice cream,” explained Andrew.

Essentially, the extreme temperature of liquid nitrogen does not allow enough time for large ice crystals to form and makes the end product creamier.

The burning question is, does it taste the same as the ice-cream we all know and love? “The ice cream we made on the day did taste like normal ice cream, but it wasn’t quite as nice as something that Our Cow Molly would produce!” said Andrew of his finished ice-cream.

The project was inspired by lectures aimed at Year 8 children to further their interest in science, which featured demonstrations of liquid nitrogen and solid carbon dioxide to make ice-cream.

“At the end of each lecture I always joked – let’s see if we can break the world record!” Andrew added. “One time Eddie [from Our Cow Molly] heard me say this and said he would get me to put my money where my mouth is and try and break the record, and Sunday was that day.”

 

 

How to build a ‘Black hole’

Ben Robinson


Scientists from the Southeast University in Nanjing, China have produced a device that is capable of acting as an “Electromagnetic Black Hole”.

The device reported this month in the New journal of Physics, is capable of achieving a 99 per cent absorption rate for microwaves. This work has applications for the study of Black holes in the lab, harvesting Electromagnetic waves (light, microwaves, X-rays etc) or acting as a thermal heating source due to processes in it’s core.

Theoretical work by Prof. Evgenii Narimanov and Dr. Alexander Vildishev proposed that it would be possible to create an “Omnidirectional light Absorber”. Scientists, led by Dr. Qiang Cheng, have created such a device using metamaterials, artificially created structured materials that have an effect and can manipulate electromagnetic waves.

The device is comprised of two key regions, an outer shell that causes microwaves to spiral in to the second region, an absorptive core. Using the principle of refraction (changing the direction of light) the scientists could build an outer shell that directs incident microwaves into the core. This was achieved through an architecture of 60 concentric rings of metamaterials that had a varying degree of refraction, formed by variations in the size of the metamaterials’ structured patterns. This created a gradient where the angle that microwaves were guided to the core increased as they got closer.

Experimental data for the outer shell showed that no microwaves were scattered or “lost” and that all were directed into a core that absorbs them, converting the microwaves to heat.  The scientists collected further experimental data for microwaves at different incident angles. Results from these showed that regardless of angle, the core thus acting like a Black hole absorbed 99 per cent of microwaves.

Whereas this device doesn’t absorb matter like a black hole, it successfully mimics the spiralling motion that incoming matter takes as it is absorbed and traps light/electromagnetic waves, much like it’s far larger namesake. The team of scientists hope to take this work further and produce a similar absorber for visible light and different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum.

This work is published in New Journal of Physics.

Cheng, Q, Cui, T.J, Jiang, W.X and Cai, B.G. An omnidirectional electromagnetic absorber made of metamaterials. New Journal of Physics 12 (pp10-21)

 

GM shouldn’t be feared but embraced as a great tool in the fight against global problems

There’s scandal at the Food Standards Agency (FSA)!!! They stand accused of being in bed with big biotech industry: whilst they are meant to be independent of both industry and government, they are said to be pushing a pro-GM agenda, of masterminding public PR campaigns to pervert the public’s perception in favour of GM. The FSA have been tasked with setting up a dialogue with the British public to research opinion on GM, to basically find out if the public want GM food on supermarket shelves, but two members of the advisory board have quit in protest of the FSA’s conduct.

The issue of GM is often portrayed as big business on one side wanting to create “Frankenstein” food and a defenceless public on the other having unnatural gunk thrust down their throats. We don’t trust big business instinctively, firms like Monsanto and Bayer are believed to have their HQ in the fiery belly of volcanoes guarded by sharks  (probably genetically modified ones) with fricken’ laser beams attached to their heads.

This image has understandably not helped the progress  of GM, despite much independent academic research contributing to the development of GM, the public still see it as the world domination plan of evil corporations. Not that firms like Monsanto have been shining beacons of good practise of course, there have been incidents, but to take such stubborn opposition on a technology because of the big business which is involved is like not using computers because you quite rightly hate Apple and Microsoft.   

Environmental groups look like the good guys as they stand up to big business and big government, but all they’re really doing is standing in the way of technology that is already helping millions across the globe. I admit, GM is of limited use in this country, but dogged objection to anything possibly “tainted” by the evil hand of a scientist is just ridiculous and anti-progress. The EU has a zero-tolerance for GM in foodstuffs meaning our food bills are higher and research in the field is restricted thanks to a no-go-zone in the world market. I know it’s clichéd to point it out, but there has always been objection to new technologies, it takes time for people to come round to and feel comfortable with yet another “playing god” scenario – but they always do. Most of the world is already enjoying the environmental, economic and health advantages that GM brings.

I think our government should be pushing a pro-GM line, I want progressivism that looks to improve the world through rational means based on experiment and results. Environmental groups are entrenched and anti-progress. Government initiatives should work with and highly regulate the industry, which is leading the innovation in GM, to benefit the world’s poorest and not protect European farmers or the ignorant traditional values of our society’s loud minority.

A dialogue with the public would certainly yield some interesting results, I’d love to know what the public think, but you’re not going to get an unbiased response. For years we have been subliminally told GM is bad: so many restaurants as a matter of course state that their food is free from GM – they might as well also tell us it’s free from arsnic and DDT because there’s just as much (or little) chance of that turning up on your plate too. We live in a world where the word “natural” is thrown around with such abandon that no-one stops to think whether it’s applicable, or even what it means.

I hope our government looks at the science – get’s someone to explain it to them – and then writes a policy that regulates the industry and ensures that the technology is used to benefit people and the environment. Because despite what Greenpeace will have you believe, there are many success stories out there far out-numbering the few (well publicised) bad ones.

Cholesterol levels in the blood are regulated by the brain

Claire Tree-Booker

The amount of cholesterol in the blood is partially controlled by the brain, American researchers at the University of Cincinnati have found.

It was previously thought that cholesterol levels in the blood, which can lead to atherosclerosis and heart disease if too high, were only controlled by production by the liver and what we eat.

The research, published in Nature Neuroscience, suggests that the “hunger hormone” ghrelin in the brain controls the amount of cholesterol in the body.

Professor Matthias Tschoep and his team of researchers found that daily injections of ghrelin caused an increase in body fat and blood cholesterol levels in mice. It is known that ghrelin inhibits melanocortin receptors in the brain, which normally regulate food intake; the scientists blocked these receptors and found that this also increased blood cholesterol levels.

They concluded that when triggered by the hormone ghrelin, the brain signals to the liver to store less cholesterol, therefore increasing levels in the blood.

Professor Tschoep said: “We have long thought that cholesterol is exclusively regulated through dietary absorption or synthesis and secretion by the liver”; this study shows for the first time that the level of cholesterol in the blood is also controlled remotely by the brain.

“This could potentially open up new forms of treatment to control cholesterol levels, which would be great news for people with heart and circulation problems” said Fotini Rozakeas, a cardiac nurse at the British Heart Foundation.

Whilst the finding needs to be tested on humans, it could provide new targets for the treatment of high cholesterol and obesity.